Migration, gender and agroforestry in Indonesia

Abstract

Migration connects land use in areas of origin with that in areas of (temporary) new residence, impacting both through individual (gendered) choices made. Synthesizing across a number of case studies in Indonesia, we focus on five aspects of three two-way linkages through migration: West Java to Lampung/South Sumatera; South to Southeast Sulawesi; and Lampung to Jambi. The condition within the community of origin, where people have different reasons to seeking new job and opportunities elsewhere, at least temporarily. From in-depth interviews and focus-group discussions we learned that decisions vary with gender and age, between individuals, households joining after signs of success and sometimes groups of households. Most of the decision making is linked to (perceived) poverty, natural resource, land competition, and emergency situation such as the force of natural disaster or increased human conflicts. The changes in the receiving community and its environment, generally in rural areas with lower human population density. Absorption of new labour can start as paid labour and patron-client relationships or share cropping, but also involve land renting and buying, within customary land ownership rules (rarely involving formal land certification). In some of the cases experience with more intensified land use in the source area (e.g. W Java) proved to be enriching agriculture and agroforestry in the new environment (e.g. S Sumatra). The effect of the migration on land use and livelihoods in the areas of origin. Feminization of agriculture, as described elsewhere for dominantly male migration patterns, appears to be less common than a pattern where elderly people taking care of grandchildren that stayed behind struggling to maintain their agricultural practices. The extensification of land use and a greater reliance on trees rather than annual crops are often constrained by lack of relevant knowledge, skills and technology. The dynamics of migrants returning with different levels of success. People coming back with success may help to rebuild the village and its agricultural system and could invest in social capital (mosques, healthcare, schools). Some who have failed may find other land use or urban labour options elsewhere. The interaction of migrants in all four aspects with government and other stakeholders in relation to development policies. In conclusion, our analysis suggests that positive aspects in both areas of origin and receiving areas may prevail, with exchange of knowledge between areas of different land use intensities spreading agroforestry practices. The latter may well be more effective than the routes through formal knowledge and extension, and in some cases is combined with tree germplasm exchange. Feminization of agriculture through preferentially male-based migration is not common in Indonesia, but age-based consequences are common, in both urban (or overseas) migration, and dispersal to areas of lower human population density